Definition of the age of Chaucer

The Age of Chaucer refers to the period of English history during the 14th and early 15th centuries, which is characterized by the works of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer. 

During the Age of Chaucer, England was undergoing significant social, economic, political, and cultural changes, which are reflected in Chaucer’s works. In the following paragraph, we are going to discuss them in a brief.

Overview of the socio-economic, political, and cultural context of the age of Chaucer

Socio-Economic Context: Medieval England was a feudal society with a strict class system, but during the Age of Chaucer, the rise of commerce and the growth of urban centers saw the emergence of a new merchant class. This shift in society challenged the traditional power structures and influenced the cultural and political landscape of the time.

The Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York for the throne of England, marked the political landscape of England during the Age of Chaucer. 

The Church also held great power and influence during this period, playing a key role in both political and cultural affairs.

In short, the socio-economic, political, and cultural context of the Age of Chaucer provided the backdrop for Chaucer’s works and helped to shape his unique perspective on medieval life. We discussed this in the Late Middle Ages. 

Chaucer and His works

Geoffrey Chaucer is considered the father of English poetry. He lived during the 14th and early 15th centuries. 

French culture heavily influenced English literature after the Norman Conquest of 1066 and therefore, the English literature in the Middle English period did not have much originality. 

The Norman Conquest had a significant impact on English literature, as it introduced French influence and led to a decline in the use of Old English.

The social conditions in England also changed after the Conquest, as the Normans and the English began to merge into a single nation.
However, in the second half of the 14th century, English literature began to flourish under the guidance of Geoffrey Chaucer. Chaucer’s life experiences as a page, esquire, diplomat, soldier, official, and courtier gave him a unique perspective on life, which he expressed in his literature. His work helped to revive English literature and paved the way for the Renaissance.

Chaucer was a master of English literature, and his work helped to establish English as a language of literature. He was influenced by a wide range of sources, including French literature, Italian literature, and classical literature.

Chaucer’s Literary Stages

Chaucer’s literary genius is shaped by his practical life experiences and exposure to foreign literature, particularly from Italy and France, which he was exposed to through his travels abroad on diplomatic missions. Chaucer’s works  can be divided into three main periods: the French, the Italian, and the English. However, the division is not strict, as Chaucer’s works from each period often contain influences from the others. 

The French Period

The French period encompasses some of his earlier allegorical works and lyrics, including love poems which are lost and a translation of the French poem Roman de la Rose. It is a long love poem in octosyllabic couplets. 

Additionally, “The Complaint of Venus” is a translation from French, illustrating Chaucer’s broad linguistic influences.

Among his allegorical works are The Boke of Blanche, an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster, and The Parliament of Foules and The House of Fame, which blend realism with allegory and exhibit wit and humor. 

The Book of the Duchess, written in 1369 to commemorate the death of Blanche of Lancaster, who was the first wife of John of Gaunt, Chaucer’s literary patron. The poem is an elegy and eulogy for Blanche. It praises her qualities and consoles John for his loss. The poem is an elegy in the style of courtly, aristocratic poetry and uses octosyllabic couplets.

The poem uses the medieval literary convention of a dream framework. The poet dreams he meets a man in black mourning the death of a graceful, beautiful lady he loved. This allegory allows Chaucer to eulogize Blanche’s virtues and lament her death.

The work combines dream and reality, lyricism and symbolism, elegy and allegory. Blanche is represented symbolically as the ideal of womanhood, but her character and virtues are real. Her life allegorizes feminine ideals while her death provides the elegy.

Chaucer shows his skill in versification through the octosyllabic couplets used throughout the poem.

In The Book of the Duchess, Chaucer displays his ability to balance fanciful allegory with realism and naturalness. While the poem is meant to teach about idealized beauty, the allegory doesn’t overwhelm the realism. The writing maintains interest and avoids dullness, even though the elegiac tone is subtle.)

The Italian Period

In the Italian period, Chaucer was inspired by Italian writers he met while traveling, like Dante and Boccaccio.  

The Parlement of Foules and The House of Fame, which, although often attributed to Chaucer’s Italian period. However, these poems still have French allegorical elements and contribute significantly to English allegorical literature. The House of Fame reflects a touch of Dante’s “Divina Commedia,” yet maintains a distinctive French pattern and lively mood.

Chaucer’s The Parlement of Foules is an allegorical work that blends realism with allegory. It presents a parliament of different types of birds – both large predatory birds and small common birds. It shows Chaucer’s ability to skillfully combine fanciful allegorical elements with realistic details and natural characterization. 

The Parlement of Foules uses a fictional parliament of birds to allegorically portray how actual parliaments were dominated by powerful figures. The House of Fame uses the fanciful idea of a House of Fame to allegorically show how fame can spread in unpredictable, capricious ways throughout a person’s life. Both of these allegorical works by Chaucer mix in realistic elements and demonstrate his wit, humor, and skill in blending allegory with realism. Even when using allegory, Chaucer injected originality and real-world observations. These two poems were influential on later writers like Spenser, showing Chaucer’s important contributions to English allegorical literature.

The Italian influence is also seen in some other, more fanciful works like The Clerk’s Tale, The Complaint to Pity, and The Complaint of Mars. These pieces showcase his prowess as both a storyteller and a lyricist, exhibiting more fanciful elements. 

Italian writer Boccaccio influenced two of Chaucer’s most famous works, The Knight’s Tale and Troilus and Criseyde. Though Chaucer used Boccaccio’s plots as a basis, Chaucer exhibits his originality by transforming the mere adventurous events of Boccaccio’s tales into highly impulsive love poems in the English language. 

Troilus and Criseyde is one of Chaucer’s most famous works, drawn from Homer’s story of the Trojan War. Chaucer’s source was Boccaccio’s Italian romance Il Filostrato. This poem from Chaucer’s Italian period shows the influence of Italian literature.

The story tells the tragic love between Troilus, a Trojan prince, and Criseyde, daughter of a Trojan priest. Their love blooms, but Criseyde is sent to the Greek camp and betrays Troilus for the Greek hero Diomede. Heartbroken, Troilus dies in battle.

Chaucer turns Boccaccio’s romance into a great English love poem structured in four books. He vividly narrates the course of the lovers’ tragic relationship in spontaneous, melodious verse.

Written likely in the 1380s, Troilus and Criseyde is seen as a masterpiece of Chaucerian literature. It demonstrates his skills in storytelling, characterization, description, introspection, and versification, elevating the romance into great poetry. Chaucer’s humor, realism and irony also come through. The poem is considered a forerunner of the Renaissance and a flowering of medieval poetry.

Moreover, Chaucer’s romances are better than earlier medieval metrical romances in a few key ways:

More substance – Chaucer’s poems have more literary and thematic weight and complexity compared to the simpler adventures and themes in previous romances.

Greater compactness – His poems are more tightly constructed and economical in their storytelling. Earlier romances often had rambling, diffuse plots.

More amplitude – Chaucer’s works have greater breadth and scope in their themes and character development. They tackle more universal human concerns.

Furthermore, Chaucer also explored deeper meaning through his poetic romances. He examines the complexity of love, desire, the tension between duty, honor, and individual passion

Another major work in this period is The Legend of Good Women, an unfinished work, based on Italian legends of noblewomen who died for love.  It is a collection of legends about faithful and virtuous women from classical sources.

The poem has a Prologue and Tales structure like The Canterbury Tales. The allegorical Prologue describes the poet dreaming he meets Cupid, who reprimands him for writing against women, especially in Troilus and Criseyde. As penance, Cupid requires him to write legends praising good women.

Inspired by Italian legends of noble and virtuous women who suffered for love. This work is not a thoroughly allegorical work, but the Prologue is allegorical. The poem is framed by a vision in which the god of love instructs the poet to write in praise of faithful and loving women as a form of penance. 

Chaucer’s depiction includes well-known female characters such as Cleopatra, Medea, Lucree, Ariadne, and Philomela. While the collection remains unfinished, Chaucer’s storytelling abilities, character development, appreciation for nature, wit, and humor enrich the work. 

The text showcases his strengths as a storyteller, character creator, and sensuous, melodic poet with a love of nature.)

Chaucer got tired of telling similar stories about praising women and left the work incomplete. But The Legend of Good Women still displays his skills in storytelling, characterization, descriptive power and melodious versification, especially in the charming Prologue.

The English Period

Despite influences from French and Italian literature, his originality always shines through.Chaucer incorporated observations on English life, culture, and manners into his works, and this served as an important source of literary inspiration and success for him. This is what we see in his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales.

The Canterbury Tales is Chaucer’s crowning achievement. Chaucer began work on the Tales in 1387, and continued to work on it until his death in 1400. The Tales are a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral. The stories are a varied and colorful mix of genres, including romance, comedy, tragedy, and satire.

In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer’s creative mastery is showcased through his keen sense of realism, his ability to weave humor, his skill in characterization, and his talent for storytelling. 

Realism – The pilgrims and their stories are grounded in detailed observations of 14th century English life. The pilgrims come from an array of social classes, occupations, and walks of life. This allows Chaucer to portray the diversity of medieval society.

Chaucer skillfully portrays the full spectrum of life – different people, professions, and social classes and their stories deal with recognizable human experiences. The pilgrims’ vivid and detailed portraits in the General Prologue give a lively glimpse into the types of real people in each social group of 14th century English society.

Chaucer also deeply explores why people act and think the way they do – their motivations, flaws, and desires. He delves into human nature by vividly portraying characters from all walks of life.

Chaucer first introduces each pilgrim in the General Prologue portraits, bringing 14th century England to life with humor and vivid details. He then has the pilgrims interact and tell tales suited to their characters.

Humor – The Tales are filled with Chaucer’s humor, and entertaining storytelling. This makes the collection enjoyable to read while also bringing out insightful truths. Irony and sly humor run through the tales as he skewers human weaknesses. His wit is on display in memorable characters like the Pardoner.

Chaucer brought wit, humor, and comic spirit to English poetry in an age that lacked lightness.

Chaucer was able to infuse The Canterbury Tales with constant humor and wit. One way was through his very funny and exaggerated descriptions of the pilgrims. For example, he describes the Monk as fat as a swan, joking about his love of food. He makes the Prioress seem very pretentious about her manners.

Another source of comedy is the irony Chaucer uses to hint at corruption, like with the Pardoner who exploits people for money. Chaucer calls him a “gentle harlot” – an ironic joke about his character.

Chaucer also finds humor in incongruities between how people seem versus how they truly are. That allows him to poke fun at social and religious hypocrisy.

The liveliness of the language makes the tales very entertaining. Chaucer blended wit, irony, and humor effortlessly to capture the comedy of human nature and society. He could provoke laughter while also offering social commentary.

Chaucer pioneered English literary comedy through the hilarious and ironic portraits, interactions, and stories of The Canterbury Tales. His comic spirit flows through the work and makes it delightfully funny even today.

His natural comic spirit was original for his time and paved the way for later English humorists. Comedy permeates The Canterbury Tales and makes it delightfully entertaining.

Storytelling – The framing device of the pilgrimage and storytelling contest allows Chaucer to craft compelling, highly varied stories in different tones and genres. He’s a masterful storyteller across multiple tales.

These strengths all reinforce each other in this work to showcase the height of his literary artistry.

Chaucer’s Development of Literary Expansion-Three Periods

(i) French Period- Lyrical and Allegorical poems

(ii) Italian Period- Allegorical poems and romances

(iii) English Period- Social, realistic, humorous comedy.

Chaucer as a writer and poet 

His art of characterisation

Chaucer was innovative in portraying characters as unique individuals rather than just types. Chaucer was the first literary master to penetrate into the mystery of individuality, and that his characters are not merely a band of men and women, but some individuals with certain special characteristics, moods and tendencies. 

Chaucer’s characters feel like real people rather than just archetypes. For example, the Wife of Bath is larger than life, vividly portrayed as a strong-willed, working woman. The Pardoner is portrayed as corrupt and hypocritical in a complex way. 

For instance, Chaucer portrays the Knight and the Squire in a very realistic and vivid manner in the General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales.

For the Knight, Chaucer gives specific details about his clothes, armor, and battles he has fought in to paint a realistic picture of a 14th century knight. We learn he fought in Alexandria and Prussia, showing his worldliness. His tunic is stained from armor, reflecting his military experience.

The Squire is portrayed as a lusty young bachelor through details like his fashionable short gown with long, wide sleeves and his singing and composing love songs. Chaucer describes his curly hair and youthful complexion. We get a sense of his energetic nature from how he rides a horse and can carve meat at dinner.

Both portraits feel authentic because Chaucer includes concrete details on their appearance, backgrounds, and mannerisms based on his astute observation of people of their social classes. He uses realistic details to bring the Knight and Squire to life as specific individuals. We imagine them as real people because of the lifelike way Chaucer depicts them.

Chaucer gives little details to make each pilgrim seem like a real person. For example, the Prioress is very proper at dinner, never dropping any food from her lips. The Monk loves rich foods and wine more than he should. The Parson sincerely cares for people’s souls.

Chaucer’s characters feel real because he uses little ironic jokes or comments to hint at their personalities. Like calling the Summoner, who exploited people, a “gentle harlot.”

The pilgrims jump off the page because we get vivid images of their appearance, clothes, and mannerisms from Chaucer’s descriptions. He paints a full picture not just with facts but with tone and humor.

In short, Chaucer could make fictional people totally convincing as real humans. Every pilgrim in The Canterbury Tales has a distinct personality revealed through Chaucer’s brilliant small details, irony, and humor. This shows his genius for characterization.

His power of storytelling

Chaucer is the first great English story-teller in verse. He employed verse as a vehicle of story-telling, which is a notable contribution to English literature. He pioneered English narrative poetry with his long verse tales like Troilus and Criseyde. He popularized storytelling in verse, moving away from just courtly lyrics. His vivid descriptions, humor, and plotting make him an engaging storyteller.

His technical command over versification

Chaucer introduced innovative verse techniques like heroic verse, rhyme royal stanza, and decasyllabic couplets. This expanded the rhythmic and rhyming possibilities in English poetry. Chaucer is credited with renovating the octo-syllabic lines used in the works of his predecessors, and with importing and introducing the pattern of versification from France. His metrical innovations alone are enough to earn him the title of “father of English poetry.”

Making poetry more common:

By writing in the London dialect of middle class England, Chaucer made poetry more accessible. Earlier court poetry was written in French and Latin, distancing it from the masses. Chaucer helped shape English into a respected literary language.

Chaucer focuses on universal human experiences and psychology in a sympathetic way. He avoids high morality and allegory, instead portraying humanity in all its complexity. This humanistic approach was ahead of much medieval literature.

Chaucer’s achievements put him centuries ahead of other English writers of his day. His work shaped English literature profoundly for the future.

Importance of Chaucer’s contributions to the development of English Poetry and Novel

While writing in English, Chaucer used vernacular English. It helped to establish the language as a literary medium and paved the way for the development of English literature. Chaucer’s works, including The Canterbury Tales, are written in Middle English. 

Chaucer’s use of rhyme and meter, his use of character and dialogue, and his ability to tell complex stories with humor and insight have all had a profound impact on the development of English poetry.

Chaucer’s works also had a significant impact on the development of the English novel. The first story that a group of pilgrims will tell is probably The Canterbury Tales. Its use of character, dialogue, and storytelling has influenced the development of English novels. It establishes a tradition of dramatic storytelling in England.

In conclusion, Chaucer’s contributions to the development of English poetry and drama are significant. Chaucer continues to be studied and celebrated for his contributions to the development of English poetry and drama, and his works remain an important part of the English.

Other Poets of Fourteenth Century

Even though Chaucer’s writings were the most important, there were other significant works from that period. These works might not be as great as Chaucer’s, but they still contributed to the growth of English literature and the preparation for the Renaissance.

One of these authors is William Langland, known for his work “Piers Plowman.” Piers Plowman is an allegorical poem that uses a dream frame to explore religious, ethical, social and economic issues of the day. The main character Piers represents moral virtues of truth, work and love. 

Piers Plowman is an allegorical poem in several ways:

The entire narrative is presented as a series of dream visions or allegorical journeys rather than realistic events. The poem is about a series of visions experienced by the dreamer (the poet himself) during sleep. This was a common medieval literary technique to explore moral themes.

The characters are mostly allegorical figures rather than realistic people. For example, the title character Piers is not a real plowman but represents moral virtues. Other characters like Lady Meed and the seven deadly sins are allegories for abstract concepts. The episodes and adventures encountered in the poem allegorically represent struggles of morality, ethics, and religion rather than literal events. For example, the poem also includes episodes like “The Marriage of Lady Meed” and “The Confession of the Seven Deadly Sins,” which discuss various moral and social themes.

The poem uses allegory to explore greater truths about human nature and society in a symbolic, metaphorical manner rather than a direct realistic portrayal. The allegories allow layered meanings related to faith, corruption, reform, etc.

“Piers Plowman” is unique for its time. It combines sociology, satire, and allegory, even though it might lack artistic beauty. The text analyzes Piers Plowman as a vivid picture of medieval life, a satire on social and church corruption, and a Christian allegory about the struggle between good and evil. Langland advocates for church reform and a more egalitarian society.

Though not an artistic masterpiece like Chaucer’s work, Piers Plowman is valued for its social significance and critique of the times. Langland’s use of allegory and satire influenced later writers such as John Bunyan. 

Chaucer and Langland

Chaucer and Langland were both important writers of their time, but they had some notable differences. 

Here are the key differences between Chaucer and Langland in simple language:

Chaucer was like an artist who created stories to entertain and bring joy to life. On the other hand, Langland was more of a serious thinker who aimed to teach important lessons through his work.

Chaucer found joy in observing and portraying the funny and interesting aspects of human society and behavior. He was a humorist who used wit and humor to highlight the quirks of people. Langland, on the contrary, was a critical thinker and moralist who pointed out and condemned moral flaws and wrote to teach lessons. He was a satirist who didn’t spare criticism even for those in high positions.

Chaucer’s writings are like precious gems of humor, with a gentle and enjoyable teasing of human imperfections. Langland, however, was a harsh satirist who focused on delivering serious messages and lacked the entertaining touch of Chaucer’s humor.

Chaucer had superior literary artistry compared to Langland’s allegorical style. Chaucer’s works were enjoyable and covered many aspects of life, whereas Langland’s writing was serious and focused on morals.

Chaucer aimed to please readers with his wit and humor, but Langland wanted to reform society with his biting satire.

John Barbour 

Barbour was a contemporary of William Langland, but unlike him, Barbour was Scottish and wrote patriotic poetry rather than religious allegories.

His principal work, “The Bruce,” is considered a national epic for the Scottish people, much like “Chanson de Roland” is for the French.

The epic poem written between 1373-1378, which chronicles Robert Bruce’s heroic battles to secure Scottish independence from England. The poem vividly describes Bruce’s experiences, struggles, courage, and determination, particularly focusing on the significant battle of Bannockburn where Scotland achieved independence.

While based on historical events, “The Bruce” also contains fictional elements that add to its poetic and popular appeal. It blends history and fiction to create a national epic celebrating Bruce’s struggles and Scotland’s fight for freedom.

Despite his strong patriotism, Barbour remains fair to the English in his writing. His poetic style is simple, catchy, and suitable for a wide audience. While Barbour lacked Chaucer’s artistic mastery, his direct style suited his role as a patriotic national poet. 

John Gower  

Gower was an important writer in medieval English literature, although not as famous as Chaucer. Gower lived from 1325 to 1408, which means contemporary of Chaucer. However, Gower’s writing style was more like the Middle Ages, and he wasn’t as advanced as Chaucer.

He wrote major works in French, Latin and English, showing his mastery of all three languages. Gower’s first important work was in French, called “Speculum Hominis” or “Mirror de l’Homme.” It was like a long sermon about the sins of the time. His next work, “Vox Clamantis,” was in Latin. It was an allegory about a peasant uprising in 1381 and criticized the disorder and corruption in society.

His last significant work, “Confessio Amantis,” was in English. It contains over 100 stories of love drawn from various sources like the Bible and Ovid.

The frame story involves the poet confessing tales of love to the priest Genius on the advice of the goddess Venus. Unlike his earlier works, this one didn’t focus on moral instructions or social behavior. Instead, Gower wanted to tell stories about love.

Although Gower’s work was well planned, it lacked originality and Chaucer’s finesse. There were too many distractions and moral lessons that made it feel a bit mechanical. Gower’s writing style was simple and straightforward, but he didn’t have the same skills as Chaucer in creating characters or using humor.

Despite this, Gower’s storytelling ability was unique. He managed to combine many stories in an interesting way and his language was polished. Chaucer even referred to him as “Moral Gower” in one of his own works. 

Chaucer’s Successors and Imitators

The English Chaucerians

Chaucer’s influence on English poetry was very strong even after he died. After Chaucer, other poets tried to write like him and follow his style, but they were not as good as Chaucer.

(i) Lydgate

One of these poets was Lydgate. He wrote a lot of poems, but he wasn’t as talented as Chaucer. Lydgate’s long narrative poems were mostly adaptations of French romances, imitating Chaucer’s storytelling approach but without the same mastery.

He wrote long poems like “The Story of Thebes” and “The Troy Book,” which were based on French stories, imitating Chaucer’s storytelling approach but without the same mastery. He also wrote “The Fall of Princes” and “The Temple of Glass,” which were allegorical stories.

Lydgate also wrote a long poem called “The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man,” which was like a translation of a French work. Lydgate also wrote shorter poems, like fables, such as “The Churl and the Bird” and “The Horse, the Sheep and the Goose,” which were influenced by Aesop’s fables and Chaucer’s style.

However, his storytelling and character descriptions were not as impressive, and his poems didn’t have the same rhythm and structure as Chaucer’s.

However, people in his time still liked his poems because he wrote in a simple way about different stories that people liked. He continued the tradition of telling stories in poems, which was popular at that time. He didn’t write as well as Chaucer, but he still added to the collection of stories in English literature.

Thomas Hoccleve

Thomas Hoccleve was another follower of Chaucer’s literary style along with John Lydgate, but he also could not match Chaucer’s talents.

Thomas Hoccleve was a companion to another writer named John Lydgate. Hoccleve also tried to write like Chaucer, although he wasn’t very successful at it.

Hoccleve is best known for his long poem The Regement of Princes, which is a long poem with about 5500 verses.

In this poem, Hoccleve pays tribute to Chaucer and Gower and talks about different things like politics, ethics, and religion. He probably wrote this to please Prince Henry.

The Regement of Princes showed Hoccleve’s attempt at Chaucerian storytelling, but his verses were often tedious rather than engaging. His didactic tone was more reminiscent of Gower’s moralism than Chaucer’s artistry. The work lacked literary value.

Hoccleve also wrote other things, like two stories he got from a French book called Gesta Romanorum. These stories are “The Emperor Jereslauu’s Wife” and “Jonathas.” He also wrote a good poem called “Ars Sciendi Mori.”

Overall, Hoccleve imitated Chaucer like Lydgate did, but failed to exhibit the same poetic gifts as his master. His merits as a writer were limited.

Other Authors

There were other writers in this group too, like Benedict Burgh, George Ashby, John Walton, and Henry Bradshaw. They mainly wrote poems to teach lessons. Their mostly didactic verses showed the decline in artistry among Chaucer’s imitators.

Two writers, George Ripley and Thomas Norton, stood out because they wrote about alchemy in different and interesting ways but but lacked poetic quality.

Several notable anonymous poems of the time exhibited some Chaucerian traits and artistry, like The Table of Beryn, La Belle Dame Sans Merci, The Cuckoo and the Nightingale.

There are two other poems, “The Assembly of Ladies” and “The Flower and the Leaf,” which might have been written by a woman. Allegorical works like The Assembly of Ladies and The Flower and the Leaf showed some literary merit through their humor, language and allegorical style.

Stephen Hawes

Stephen Hawes was the last important English English Chaucerian poet. He lived at the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, a time when the style of poetry from Chaucer’s tradition was becoming old-fashioned. He is the last follower of that tradition in a time when new kinds of literature were emerging.

His most significant work is “The Pastime of Pleasure,” written around 1505-6. This poem is both allegorical and didactic poem. He admitted his indebtedness to Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate in his work. 

The poem is quite long, with about 5800 lines, and is divided into forty-five parts. It’s written in a special rhyme pattern. Hawes wanted to teach readers through his poetry, like Gower and Lydgate did.

Another notable allegorical poem by Hawes is “The Example of Virtue”. This poem tells the story of a person’s life from youth to old age.

Hawes also wrote “The Conversion of Swearess”. In this poem, Christ urges rulers to stop swearing oaths. The poem’s structure is innovative with shaped verses that increased and decreased in syllables.

Hawes wrote more works, like “A Joyful Meditation to all England of the Coronation of Henry the Eighth” (1509) and “The Comfort of Lovers” (date unknown).  

Hawes followed the medieval literary style of digressions, debates, allegory and moralism.

He used allegory and symbolism, which can remind us a little of later poet Spenser’s style. He mainly used a type of rhyme called the Chaucerian stanza, which has seven lines. Sometimes his rhyming is like Chaucer’s, but not always perfectly balanced.

The Scottish Chaucerians

Chaucer’s influence in literature wasn’t limited to England; it also reached Scotland and played a role in the rise of Scottish poetry during the 15th century. This helped spark a golden age of Scottish poetry.

Scottish poets like King James I, Henryson, Dunbar, and Douglas were more successful imitators of Chaucer than English poets like Lydgate, Hoccleve, and Hawes. The Scottish poets exhibited better poetic gifts.

Blind Harry wrote the poem Wallace, which was inspired by patriotism and the legendary Scottish hero William Wallace. It used a 10-syllable meter similar to Chaucer.

The glory of Scottish poetry in this period lies with the Scottish “Chaucerians” who followed Chaucer’s style and ideals. Their poetry was medieval in its inspiration, rather than looking forward to the Renaissance. 

James I

James I of Scotland (1394-1437) was a Scottish king and the first major Scottish poet to show the influence of Chaucer.

He is believed to have written a poem called “The King’s Quair” or “The King’s Book,” which shows inspiration from the writings of Geoffrey Chaucer.

“The King’s Quair” is a dream allegory relating James I’s personal experience of falling in love with Joan Beaufort while imprisoned in England for 19 years. It It echoes the style and themes of Chaucer’s Romance of the Rose and “The Knight’s Tale.” At the age of eleven, he was captured and imprisoned by the English for nineteen years. While in captivity, he fell in love with John Beaufort, and the poem narrates this romantic episode.

The poem has two parts – the first on the author’s misfortunes and struggles, the second on his happiness in love. It utilizes the medieval dream vision and has some appealing storytelling qualities.

“The King’s Quair” is a beautiful romance in verse that follows the Chaucerian poetic tradition with its tone, meter, and subject matter.. It tells a story using verse and incorporates a dream allegory, which adds to its interest.

Some minor poems like Peblis to the Play are also attributed to James I, but his authorship is doubtful. The King’s Quair remains his major work and contribution as a Scottish Chaucerian poet.

Robert Henryson

Robert Henryson was a a Scottish schoolmaster and poet who was influenced by Chaucer’s style of writing. He worked as a schoolmaster, and while not much is known about his life, his poetry reflects the impact of Chaucer’s influence.

He was influenced by Chaucer and wrote a sequel to Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde called The Testament of Cresseid. The poem tells the sad ending of Cresseid’s life as she dies from leprosy, unaware that Troylus had given her alms when she was a beggar. The poem is filled with tragedy and evoking pity in a style similar to Chaucer’s.

Henryson’s longest and most popular work is Morall Fabillis of Esope, a collection of fables influenced by Aesop. It includes the humorous poem The Town Mouse and the Field Mouse, which showcases Henryson’s wit and storytelling gifts reminiscent of Chaucer.

Henryson also wrote a number of shorter poems on reflective topics and allegories with didactic aims. One notable shorter poem is Robene and Makyne, a well-crafted pastoral dialogue that helped establish the pastoral tradition that would flourish in the Elizabethan era.

William Dunbar

William Dunbar (1460-1520) is considered the greatest of the Scottish Chaucerians. He started as a Franciscan and later became the poet-laureate of the king’s court. Dunbar wrote around 100 poems showcasing his originality and mastery of diverse subjects and techniques.

“The Goldyn Targe” is an allegorical work where the poet tries to resist the arrows of beauty using the shield of gold of reason. “The Thrissil and the Rois” is a dream-poem symbolizing the marriage between James IV and Margaret Tudor, representing the union of England and Scotland.

Dunbar showed his realism, wit, and technical skill in poems like The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Synnis and his satires attacking societal ills.

Dunbar followed Chaucer’s narrative style in “The Freiries Berwick,” which deals with the theme of a deceitful wife. He used a similar approach in “The Tretis of the Tua Mariit Wemen and the Wedo,” echoing Chaucer’s “The Wife of Bath” with greater freedom.

Dunbar’s satirical power is evident in “The Tidings from the Session,” where he criticizes law courts, and in “Satire on Edinburgh,” where he denounces the city’s condition. “The Lament for the Makaris” reflects on the fleeting nature of human achievements.

Dunbar elevated and renewed medieval poetic forms by injecting vitality, wit, and satire. His body of work demonstrates the success of the Chaucerian tradition taking root in Scotland, earning him the title of “Scottish Chaucer.”

Gavin Douglas

Gavin (Gawain) Douglas was an important figure among the Scottish poets influenced by Chaucer. He was also a churchman and a bishop. Despite being involved in politics, he dedicated some of his time to writing poetry. He was a devoted follower of Chaucer and paid tribute to him in his writings. He was also a patriotic Scot.

His major works include the allegorical poems “The Palice of Honour” and “King Hart”. The former was modeled after Chaucer’s “House of Fame” and exhibits Douglas’s Chaucerian style. It tells of a dream where the poet visits a magnificent palace and engages in various learned discussions.

Another notable work is “King Hart,” which is also allegorical and considered better constructed than his earlier efforts. It reflects Chaucer’s influence more skillfully.

Douglas is particularly known for translating Virgil’s “Aeneid” into Scottish dialect. His translation showcases his scholarship, literary sense, and mastery of verse. He added personal touches through prologues to each book, discussing his own experiences and his homeland. His translation was a significant achievement in bringing classical literature to English.

Douglas contributed to the diversity of the Scottish Chaucerian tradition through his range of allegory, translation, and descriptive verse. His success in absorbing Chaucer’s style while asserting his own distinct voice and Scottish themes was significant. Along with Henryson and Dunbar, Douglas helped accomplish a golden age of Scottish poetry within the medieval Chaucerian frame.

Popular Songs and Ballads

Popular songs and ballads emerged in the transition from medieval to Renaissance literature in both England and Scotland. They have anonymous authorship and imprecise dates, so a comprehensive account is difficult.

Ballads are simple, lyrical narrative poems that tell a brief story in rhythmic, melodious verses. Their popularity, simple style, melodious verse, and themes of heroism, adventure and love echo medieval romances.

The earliest ballad is the fragmentary Canute Song. It is about a king named Canute. He was in a boat with his queen and friends, and he asked them to sing with him. This was probably the first time a ballad was created in English. This ballad had a different rhythm from the old poems, and the stage for many more ballads to come.

Many popular ballads center on Robin Hood legends. Robin Hood was a hero who helped the poor and fought against bad people. Though their dates are uncertain, some of these ballads are quite old, while others seem to be from a newer time. They show the adventures of Robin Hood and his friends.

There are even ballads about other heroes and adventures, like one called “The Maid Freed from the Gallows.” This ballad talks about the power of true love. Some ballads are based on bigger stories, like “Hynd Horn” and “Sir Orfeo.” They have a bit of epic grandeur or intense emotions.

Chevy Chase

Chevy Chase is a famous ballad that tells an exciting story about the conflict between England and Scotland. 

It tells the story of a clash between Percy of Northumberland and Douglas of Scotland. Percy wants to hunt in Douglas’s land to challenge him and start a fight. The ballad talks about the intense battle between them. Douglas is killed, and Percy feels sad for his brave enemy. The ballad shows how bravery turns into noble behavior.

Chevy Chase exemplifies the qualities of an epic ballad, echoing works like The Battle of Maldon and The Song at Brunanburh in its martial subject matter and chivalrous ethos. 

It has an epic directness and simplicity in narrating the details of warfare. Chevy Chase proved deeply inspiring for later English balladeers and holds great significance in the ballad tradition.

The Nut Brown Maid

The Nut Brown Maid is another popular early English ballad, though not a border ballad like Chevy Chase. 

The poem tells us about a girl, a baron’s daughter, who loves a squire deeply. Even though he tries to avoid her, she stays loyal to him. Eventually, she gets her happy ending – the squire, who is actually a noble lord in disguise, agrees to marry her. Unlike Chevy Chase, this story has a joyful ending.

It is a song of love rather than war, with more intricate versification than Chevy Chase.  The ballad has a cultivated, dramatic, spontaneous lyrical style.

Its narrative method is unique – relating the story through a lyrical dialogue between the lady and gentleman.

Though simple, the native inspirational ballads like The Nut Brown Maid enriched English poetry and led toward the Renaissance style.

The Nut Brown Maid exemplifies a different strain of early English balladry focused on romantic love and using more sophisticated poetic techniques than the martial border ballads.