Anglo-Norman literature refers to the period of Anglo-Norman period from the 11th to the 13th centuries in which the literature of England was written in the Norman French language.

After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the Normans introduced a new way of life to England. This included law, culture, the prestige of success, and the strong impulse to participate in the broader world’s activities, which was compelling to the isolated Anglo-Saxons.

The Anglo-Saxons were thus naturally drawn to the Normans’ more cultured and progressive ways, adopting them as their literary models. French literature remained dominant and English writers “copy the French models” for nearly three centuries.

The literature of the time is predominantly “mediaeval in spirit, and French in style and expression.” (W.J Long)

Anglo-Norman Poetry

Poetry of the period is mostly religious and didactic, allegorical and lyrical.

Religious or Didactic Poetry

The poem “Poema Morale” or “The Moral Ode” by an anonymous writer considered the first significant religious work in English. Another noteworthy religious poem is “Ormulum,” or “The Work of the Monk Orm”. It is believed to have been written by an Augustinian monk named Orm around the early 1200s.

“The Moral Ode” and “The Ormulum” can be viewed as pivotal tools in the church’s broader educational efforts during the medieval period. These works are not only notable for their innovative style and versification in terms of technique but also in the church’s mission to communicate religious teachings more effectively to the English-speaking populace.

“The Moral Ode” crafted around 1170, serves as a sermon urging Christians towards virtuous living while expressing regret for the poet’s misspent youth and wasted opportunities. It warns against impiety and anti-Christian behavior.

“The Moral Ode” advocates for a dignified life, emphasizing that good deeds will be rewarded and evil punished. This message aligns with the medieval Catholic court’s cautious stance, reflecting the values of medieval Catholicism.

“The Moral Ode” is celebrated for its impact on the development of English versification. “The Moral Ode” features a meter with stanzas of four and three lines, each stanza bearing seven accents and ending in iambic rhyming maxims. Its form, comprising four hundred lines of fourteen syllables each arranged in rhymed couplets, marked a significant departure from Latin verse, adapting to fit native English meter.

In contrast, “The Ormulum” is praised for its straightforward language, clear imagery, and unrhymed verses, including the introduction of a novel spelling system by its author.

This transition played a crucial role in the evolution of English meter. Unlike Anglo-Saxon Christian poetry, which often features complex imagery, the direct language and structured verses of “Poema Morale” made it accessible to a wider audience, transcending the confines of Latin-dominated religious texts.

Similarly, “The Ormulum,” followed initiative by paraphrasing forty gospel readings in English. Its avoidance of foreign words and its commitment to a clear, precise language of the gospels facilitated a deeper understanding of religious texts.

Although the content may seem unoriginal, being a direct translation of the gospels, its true significance emerges through its structure and nationalistic tone. Its metrical precision stands out, with nearly ten thousand lines of carefully structured verse, of which only a fragment survives today. The verse pattern, characterized by lines with seven accents, represents an evolution from the structure used in “Poema Morale.”

The “Ormulum” shares a didactic nature with “Poema Morale.”

By making religious teachings more accessible, they helped bridge the gap between the clergy and the lay population.

Books about saints like “The Life of Saint Brendan” and “The Life of Saint Dunstan” are famous too. “The Life of Saint Brendan” keeps the magical stories of Celtic legends alive, even after being translated into French. “The Life of Saint Dunstan” is known for showing how someone can be devoted and pious in a simple and engaging way.

Another significant religious work is “Cursor Mundi” written around 1320. It has importance for imparting religious instruction to the mass.

This work significantly contributed to the literature of its time by paraphrasing the Holy Bible and weaving medieval legends and tales into its narrative. Comprising 24,000 octosyllabic lines, it stands out for its didactic purpose.

“Cursor Mundi” is described as an “amplified versification of the New Testament” written in Northumbrian dialect. Its primary goal is to captivate the common people’s interest by narrating various Biblical stories, offering a literary alternative to the romances that were popular during that era.

“Cursor Mundi” skillfully combines Biblical stories with medieval legends while preserving the scriptures’ integrity, steering clear of monotonous ecclesiastical teachings. Its extensive scope, featuring about twenty-four thousand rhyming octosyllabic couplets, has greatly contributed to its broad appeal.

“The Handlyng Synne” by Robert Mannyng aiming at propagating Christian values among the masses stands as a notable example of didactic religious literature. Mannyng’s work is noted not for its originality in the didactic literature of the period but for its moral storytelling, which was meant to illustrate the nature of sin.

while Mannyng’s adaptation was based on William of Wadington’s “Manuel des Peches”, it was not a mere imitation. Instead, Mannyng infused the stories with a personal touch, making them “more homely and appealing” to his audience.

Allegorical Poetry

Allegory, a common literary form of the time, is recognized for its prevalence in Middle English literature, often employed by preachers and commentators to interpret scripture in a way that was both regular and popular. The dominance of allegories in this period’s literature is largely attributed to the cultural influence of French literature.

One of the most well-known and influential medieval allegories is “Romance of the Rose,” which was held in high regard both in France and England from the 13th to the 16th century. This work was originally started by Guillaume de Lorris and later completed by Jean Clopinel (also known as Jean de Meun).

Lyrical Poetry

The lyrical poetry is considered even more poetic and interesting than the ballads and romances. Some examples are “Springtime” (circa 1300), and “Alysoun,” written at the end of the thirteenth century and “Luve Ron” (love rune or letter) by Thomas de Hales from around 1250.

These examples highlight the lyrical nature of the period’s poetry, which would eventually lead to the era of Chaucer.

Three other lyrics poems of the era are “The Pearl,” “Cleanness” ” (also known as “Purity”) and “Patience.” They are attributed to the same author and are characterized by their allegorical and didactic nature.

“The Pearl,” considered the most beautiful of the three, was given its name by the translator and editor Richard Morris in 1864.

“Patience” is a retelling of the biblical book of Jonah, and “Cleanness” expounds on biblical stories to moralize bout purity.

“The Pearl” expresses the poet’s lament over the loss of his little daughter Margaret, symbolized by a lost pearl. During his grief, he envisions his daughter in a heavenly paradise, which turns his sorrow into joy and wonder. As he seeks a way to join her, he is met by her radiant vision. It provides him with a spiritual enlightenment that transcends earthly sorrows.

The poem “Pearl” is significant as it is seen both as an allegory and an elegy. It symbolizes the Christian faith in the Kingdom of Heaven and the passage from earthly loss to spiritual gain. The lost ‘pearl’ represents his deceased daughter, while the gained pearl symbolizes the spiritual revelation. The poem is also noted for its elegiac content, where the poet mourns his daughter, and this lamentation is a clear feature of the work.

The structure of “Pearl” comprises one hundred and one stanzas, each with twelve lines following a unique rhyme scheme and alliterative technique, showcasing the author’s craftsmanship in both imagery and versification. It stands out for its original rhyme scheme and the fusion of music and sentiment in its lines. The anonymous author is praised for his subtle poetic power, his ability to balance “moral earnestness with artistic skill,” and is considered a predecessor to Spenser in the use of allegory and artistic expression.

“Purity,” the third poem, engages in a discourse on purity, demonstrating the impossibility of approaching God without cleanliness. The poem is filled with allegory but reportedly lacks the special sensibility that distinguishes “Pearl.”

The works like “Purity” and “Pearl” might have been influenced by the allegorical narrative style found in “Romance of the Rose.”

The page then introduces “The Owl and The Nightingale” is a poem written around 1220, attributed to Nicholas de Guildford.

“The Owl and the Nightingale,” depicts a debate between the two birds, symbolizing a contest between youth and age. The nightingale, representing youthful thought, criticizes the owl for its physical appearance, and the owl retorts with equal vigor. The dispute escalates to the brink of a direct confrontation but is cleverly diffused by a wren, who suggests seeking the judgment of one Nicholas Guildford, likely the author or a friend.

“The Owl and the Nightingale” is also commended for its smooth and melodious octosyllabic lines, totaling 800 in number, and its simple yet effective diction.

This English allegory, influenced by French poetic tradition, is praised for its originality and is categorized as a “true comedy,” known for its sharp wit, humor, and satirical content.

The poem is structured as a “disputation,” a form popular with French and Provençal poets. It stands apart from other poetical disputes of the time due to its comedic nature and the poet’s ability to maintain impartiality, keeping the debates engaging throughout.

This work is significant in the Middle-English period and has influenced subsequent verse fables and even Chaucer’s nature allegories.

In addition, “The Fox and the Wolf” is another verse-fable from the period that humorously recounts the cunning escape of a fox from a wolf, highlighting the allegorical nature of these tales with clear moral lessons.

“The Cuckoo and the Nightingale” is another allegorical poem of the time, discussing the theme of love’s value, contrasting the nightingale’s romanticism with the cuckoo’s cynicism.

Ballads: A Common Man’s Company

During this period, ballads emerged as a widely cherished form of literature. At the time, most literature was in French, accessible primarily to clergy and nobility. Manuscripts, being rare and expensive, were beyond the reach of ordinary people. Given the widespread illiteracy among the general populace, ballads were crafted with them in mind, offering a window into their perspectives and experiences.

The collection known as the “Geste of Robin Hood,” featuring tales of the merry men of the greenwood, provides a unique insight into the thoughts and feelings of the common folk, arguably better than many historical texts. These ballads portray Robin Hood as embodying chivalry and generosity toward women, the poor, and those in need. Far from mere entertainment, these ballads express the dreams and aspirations of oppressed yet noble individuals yearning for freedom – a sentiment symbolized by Robin Hood.

The tone of these ballads is multifaceted, often addressing themes of lawlessness and a disdain for oppression and pretense, yet they are imbued with humor, particularly in depictions of wealthy churchmen receiving lectures from bandits. This period also saw the satirical “Land of Cockaygne” (or “Luxury Land”), which mocks monastic life, further illustrating the ballads’ role in capturing the essence of English folk spirit at the time. “Luxury Land” serves as a parody of the mythical Avalon, reflecting the common people’s skepticism towards such idyllic notions.

The Metrical Romances

Metrical romances, a genre of poetry, are lengthy poems or poem series.

They are the dominant form of secular literary expression in Middle English, heavily influenced by French literature after the Norman Conquest.

The metrical romances characterized by themes of courtly love, chivalry, and religion- reflecting the romantic and chivalrous spirit of the age. The heroes of these romances were often knights and the narratives populated with warriors, fair ladies, perilous quests, giants, dragons, heroic knights battling against formidable monsters etc.  

The categorization of metrical romance is based on subject matter. The subject matter of these romances often drew from historical or legendary sources, including Greek and Roman tales.

There are three types of romances: romances of France, Rome, and Britain.

The “matter of France” pertains to stories about Charlemagne and his peers. The national epic “Chanson de Roland” is a prime example of “matter of France”. These narratives focused on heroic exploits and gallantry.

The French originals of these romances were meticulously structured with exact meter, rhyme, and assonance to create a melodious effect.

The tales of Alexander the Great and the siege of Troy fall into category of romances of Rome.

Oriental romances often revolve around love and mysticism. These stories, some inspired by “The Arabian Nights,” include legendary and mystical tales such as those about Lord Buddha. Notable Oriental romances mentioned are “Barlaam and Josaphat,” “Flores and Blancheflar,” “The Meditations of Childe Ypotis,” and “Amis and Amiloun.”

“Flores and Blancheflar” is particularly highlighted as a popular eastern romance from the thirteenth century, telling the story of two young lovers separated and eventually united, all conveyed in rhyming verses.

This romance is part of a larger tradition that includes the “matter of Britain,” focusing on British legends. Early English romances were not original creations but rather adaptations or translations from French sources, encompassing not only the matter of France and Rome but also Celtic heroes such as Arthur, Guy of Warwick, and Robin Hood.

The most captivating romances for English readers are those related to King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. These Arthurian romances, which include stories of Gawain, Lancelot, Merlin, and the quest for the Holy Grail, represent a vast treasury of romance within English literature.

Among the Arthurian romances, the tales of the Gawain cycle are particularly celebrated, with “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” standing out for its merit.

Other purely English romances are “The Guy of Warwick,” which tells of Sir Guy’s battles against the Danes, and “Sir Beves of Hamtown,” a story of a valiant youth’s gallantry and love. “The Four Sons of Aymon” and “Richard Cour de Lion” are also discussed, with “Richard Cour de Lion” being a semi-historical romance about the Crusader King Richard I.

The poem “Morte D’ Arthur” also stands as a significant work with epic qualities, portraying Arthur almost as an epic hero.

Chronicles

The first remarkable chroniclers are the Latin chronicles, which offer detailed accounts of early English history. A significant contributor is Florence of Worcester, whose work “Chronicon ex Chronicis” is a compilation of previous chronicles, including Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History” and the “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.”

“Historia Regum Britanniae” by Geoffrey of Monmouth was important chronicle because it played a role in shaping a unified national identity from the stories of both groups. It told stories of heroes that appealed to both the conquerors (Normans) and the conquered (Saxons). These stories, though based on Celtic legends, helped create a sense of pride and unity in the country.

While not heavily grounded in authentic history, “Historia Regum Britanniae,” is renowned for its enchanting blend of Celtic legends and romantic tales. Geoffrey portrays Arthur as a grand and mighty king, elevating him from a mere historical figure to one of enchanting romance. His Arthur is a successful opponent not only of the Saxons but also of Rome, exemplifying valor.

“Historia Regum Britanniae,” is significant not as a work of literature but as a source book from which many later writers drew their materials such as Shakespeare’s “King Lear,” Malory’s “Morte d’Arthur,” and Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King”.

Thomas Malory’s “Morte D’Arthur,” published in 1484, is highlighted for its epic portrayal of King Arthur, almost as an epic hero. (W.J Long)

Layamon’s “Brut” is considered the most important of the English riming chronicles. “Brut or British History,” holds a high place in literature for its depiction of England’s history and geography.

Layamon, a priest living at Ernley by Severn’s bank, was inspired to recount the noble deeds of the English. He combined three texts: one by Saint Bede, another Latin text, and a French clerical work by Wace, which was a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s history. Layamon’s work synthesized these sources into a single book written on animal hide. (W.J Long)

Layamon’s adaptation, though based on the French rhyming version known as Wace’s “Brut,” includes his additions and variations, melding Geoffrey’s account with elements from Welsh folklore and legends.

Even if “Brut” had no literary merit on its own, Layamon’s significance is underlined as being crucial for the resurgence of interest in native materials. While he converted the French verse to English and added unique content, his work is not celebrated for its artistic verse. His addition of new material related to King Arthur is highlighted as particularly noteworthy. Despite his versification being seen as discordant and prosaic, the content of Layamon’s “Brut” is considered valuable for its substantial contribution to the growth of Arthurian literature. (W.J Long)

Another anonymous chronicler who penned “Gesta Stephani” is also noted for his detailed and vivid presentation, standing even higher than William of Malmesbury in these regards.

Middle English prose

Middle English prose is scarce relative to the popularity of verse. The prose that existed often had religious underpinnings and focused on the tenets of Christianity. Significant works of the period in prose include the “Ancrene Riwle,” the “Wycliff Bible,” and “Richard Rolle’s Meditations.”

It highlights the “Ancren Riwle,” a piece of old English prose written around 1225, offering religious advice to three ladies living a devout life without becoming nuns. This work was authored by Bishop Poore of Salisbury and first edited by Morton in 1853.

“Ancrene Riwle” or “Rules of the Anchoresses” is produced in the early thirteenth century, is dedicated to guiding anchoresses in their secluded and sacred life. It was potentially authored by Bishop Poware and is believed to be written particularly for nuns at Tarrant in Dorcetrshire. The book is organized into eight parts, encompassing ethical matters, senses, and rules about confession and penitence, among other aspects of anchoretic life.

“Richard Rolle’s Meditations on the Passion” is described as a profound and thoughtful work on Christ and the Cross, emphasizing the significance of such meditative writing.

John Wycliffe’s Bible is acknowledged as a bold but contentious project that aimed to bring the scriptures into common vernacular, although Wycliffe himself did not live to see its publication.

Anglo-Norman Literature Characteristics

1. It is characterized by a fusion of French and Old English language, culture, and literary styles. This means that the literature contains elements of both the French and English cultures, languages, and literary traditions, reflecting the blending of the two cultures that occurred after the Norman conquest. For instance, “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” features a fusion of French and Saxon literary styles.
2. Anglo-Norman literature includes a wide range of genres, including poetry, romance, history, and legal texts. This means that it encompasses a diverse array of literary forms, from epic poetry and chivalric romances to historical chronicles and legal documents.
3. One of the most important and influential genres of Anglo-Norman literature is the Arthurian romance, which tells the stories of King Arthur and his knights. This genre of literature, which recounts the legendary deeds of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table, was highly popular during the Middle Ages and had a lasting impact on later literature.
4. Many of the texts were written by French-speaking poets, nobles, and clergymen living in England. This means that the authors of Anglo-Norman literature were often members of the French-speaking elite who had settled in England after the Norman conquest, such as nobles and clergymen.