Elizabethan Drama
The Development of Drama
Two factors that influenced state of the stage
The Elizabethan age was a golden period for British drama. This period marked a flourishing era in drama with notable playwrights like Shakespeare and others contributing to its growth. The influence of Italian comedians and Roman tragic dramatists like Plautus, Terence, and Seneca played a crucial role in shaping English comedy and tragedy. This Italian influence fostered the growth of a national English theater. Under the brilliant works of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, drama became a leading literary force.
Two major factors contributed to the rise of Elizabethan theater.
First, England was prospering and expanding its power during this time. Victories over the Spanish Armada boosted English patriotism. These achievements fueled a sense of national pride, which also reflected in literary activities, particularly drama.
Secondly, permanent theaters were established during this time, transitioning from nomadic performances. permanent theaters like The Theatre, The Curtain, and The Rose were among the early playhouses, providing a secure platform for playwrights to showcase their creativity. Although the physical staging of the theaters was basic, the English dramatists found motivation and creative freedom to produce their plays regularly.
Shakespeare’s predecessors: (a) comic authors (b) tragic authors — their significance ]
Among Shakespeare’s predecessors, John Lyly, George Peele, Robert Greene, Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe were notable playwrights. Lyly, Peele and Greene wrote comedies while Kyd and Marlowe were tragedians who advanced English tragedy. The “University Wits” like Lyly and Marlowe had strong classical learning and brought new life to the English drama.
John Lyly
John Lyly achieved success as a playwright with his prose romance Euphues before writing popular comedies like Campaspe, Gallathea, and Endimion. His comedies drew inspiration from myths and legends, showcasing his inventive situations and vivid dialogues. Though Lyly’s plays lacked strong plotting and characterization, he introduced innovations to English drama in three key ways.
- He introduced prose dialogue into original English comedy for the first time, marking a departure from earlier doggerel and contributing to a new world of expression.
- He established the “high comedy” genre to cultured audiences that relied more on intellectual wit rather than slapstick or physical comedy and farce.
- His Euphuistic prose style brought new sophistication, charm and subtlety to dramatic dialogue, enriching the overall dramatic expression during the Elizabethan era.
George Peele
George Peele was a dramatist who, compared to Lyly and Greene, held a lower position. His notable plays were The Arraignment of Paris, The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First, The Battle of Alcazar, The Old Wives’ Tale, and The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe.
Like his contemporaries, Peele used history, mythology, and legends as source material. He was not an original innovator in dramatic techniques. His play structures were weak, and he didn’t stand out in plot creation, character portrayal, or versification. However, Peele’s competence in drama shouldn’t be completely disregarded. He had versatility in themes, refined treatment, avoidance of crude humor, captivating imagery, and skillful language. These qualities earned him a respectable place among Elizabethan playwrights, though he can be seen as a contributor rather than a leader in the field.
Robert Greene
Robert Greene was a more successful playwright than Lyly In the Elizabethan era. His well-known plays include The Comical History of Alphonsus, King of Aragon, A Looking Glass for London and England (written with Thomas Lodge), Orlando Furioso, The Scottish History of James the Fourth, and Friar Bacon and Friar Bongay. He is also attributed as the author of George a Green or The Pinner of Wakefield.
Greene took subjects from English history, medieval legends, and foreign tales. Unlike John Lyly who focused on language and rhetoric, Greene had great skill in crafting dramatic characters and situations. Greene’s mastery in drawing characters and crafting dramatic situations surpasses Lyly’s work. Even Shakespeare showed influence from Greene, just as from Lyly.
His plays were meant for the stage and mass appeal, much like the works of Thomas Kyd, Christopher Marlowe, and Shakespeare.
Greene made several key contributions to Elizabethan drama.
First, he effectively used romantic settings, which Shakespeare later employed.
Second, he created vibrant, intellectual female characters. He is among the first to portray intellectually vibrant women, a theme that Shakespeare later brilliantly elaborated on with characters like Rosalind, Celia, Viola, Beatrice, and Portia.
Third, Greene’s comedies also pioneered what is now known as the romantic comedy genre, prefiguring Shakespeare’s famous works like “As You Like It” and “Twelfth Night.”
Fourth, Greene mixed verse and humorous prose in his comedies, advancing on Lyly’s sole use of prose.
Lastly, Greene’s plays resonate with a strong national spirit, showcasing his attachment to English traditions, traits, and scenes—an affinity he shares with his great successor, Shakespeare.
Thomas Lodge
Thomas Lodge is known primarily for his romances, not his plays. Only two of Lodge’s plays survive – The Wounds of Civil War and A Looking Glass for London and England, the latter believed to be a collaboration with Greene. Neither of Lodge’s plays demonstrate strong dramatic skill or made major innovations to English drama.
Thomas Nashe
Similarly, Thomas Nashe also has very limited achievements as a dramatist. He likely contributed to Christopher Marlowe’s Dido, Queen of Carthage and the lost play called The Isle of Dogs. His one known play Summer’s Last Will and Testament is an allegorical satire about the seasons which provides a clear sense of his dramatic skills.
In short, while Peele, Lodge, and Nashe contributed to Elizabethan theater, they did not make major advancements to the era’s drama. In contrast, Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe stand out as the most prominent dramatists preceding Shakespeare. They wrote popular tragedies that paved the way for Shakespeare’s works to surpass them in fame and genius.
Christopher Marlowe
Christopher Marlowe was a talented playwright and a University scholar with a short but brilliant career. Christopher Marlowe, a distinct dramatist, left a remarkable mark among pre-Shakespeareans.
Despite his short life, Marlowe’s dramatic achievements were impressive. His plays, Tamburlaine, Doctor Faustus, The Jew of Malta, and Edward II showcased history, romance, and magic. Marlowe excelled in combining drama and poetry, skillfully portraying tragic characters’ inner conflicts with passionate and touching poetry. He transformed blank verse, making it musical and dignified, suiting the intensity of his tragedies centered on passion.
Marlowe’s characters were powerful tragic figures, grappling with inner conflict. He advanced the romantic tragedy genre through his focus on human emotion and poetry.
Marlowe and Kyd, along with the University Wits, laid the foundation for English drama’s development and advanced English drama up to Shakespeare’s era.
William Shakespeare
Very little is definitively known about Shakespeare’s personal life and background. There is speculation but few facts regarding his childhood, education, and early career. Scholars divide Shakespeare’s 24 years of literary activity into four periods:
The first period (1588-1595) saw him experimenting with various forms of drama, including history, comedy, and tragedy. His early works are like Henry VI plays, Titus Andronicus, Comedy of Errors, Love’s Labour’s Lost. He was still learning and influenced by predecessors like Marlowe.
The second period (1595-1601) is considered his ‘Comic Period,’. It was characterized by his comedies and historical plays, showcasing a more mature touch. Great comedies like Taming of the Shrew, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It, Twelfth Night. Also history plays like King John and Henry IV showing his developing skill. The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, and others are known for their wit and charm.
The third period (1601-1608) is considered his ‘Tragic Period,’ featuring his renowned tragedies like Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, and Julius Caesar.
The fourth period (1608-1612) brought forth a mix of tragedy and romance, with plays dark tragedies like Antony and Cleopatra followed by renewed optimism in romances like Cymbeline and The Tempest.
His sonnets were written earlier but published in 1609.
Marlowe and Shakespeare
Christopher Marlowe was an outstanding dramatist of the Elizabethan era and made significant contributions to English drama. His conception of the tragic hero and use of blank verse influenced Shakespeare. While Marlowe’s contribution is undeniable, Marlowe’s genius was inferior to Shakespeare’s in several key aspects.
Marlowe lacked Shakespeare’s mastery of plot construction – his plays, apart from Edward II, have flawed structures compared to Shakespeare’s tightly-woven dramas. Marlowe’s characterization was also weaker than Shakespeare’s psychologically complex tragic figures like Hamlet and Othello.
Marlowe’s plays lack significant and strong female characters, whereas women are portrayed with depth and nuance in Shakespeare. Shakespeare’s women, like Cordelia and Lady Macbeth, are fully developed and relatable, while Marlowe’s women are often sketchy and overshadowed.
Marlowe’s dramas also focus heavily on the central hero, lacking the secondary characters and comic relief Shakespeare provided through figures like Horatio, Cassio and the Fool.
Marlowe’s plays maintain a serious tone throughout, lacking the comic relief that Shakespeare skillfully weaved into his tragedies. Shakespeare’s plays offer both intense drama and moments of humor, creating a more profound impact. Marlowe’s limitations become apparent in comparison to Shakespeare’s broad range of vision, human understanding, and mastery of characterization.
Had he lived longer, Marlowe may have further developed his talents. Marlowe’s genius is evident, but he does not possess the same breadth and depth as Shakespeare.
Post-Shakespearean Dramatists
After the glorious era of Shakespeare, there were other great dramatists who carried forward the legacy of English drama during the Elizabethan age. While Shakespeare and his predecessors like Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe laid a strong foundation, the figures likes Ben Jonson, George Chapman, Beaumont, Fletcher, Webster, Middleton, Heywood, Tourneur, Ford, Shirley, and more continued the dramatic tradition.
Ben Jonson stood out among Shakespeare’s contemporaries. He focused on realistic social comedies, known as the Comedies of Humour. He brought satire and social commentary to the stage. His plays like “Every Man In His Humour”, “Every Man Out of His Humour”, Volpone and The Alchemist introduced a new comic spirit to the stage. His works were characterized by wit and social observation.
George Chapman, a classical scholar, followed a similar classical approach. His plays included both tragedies and comedies. Chapman’s tragedies like “Bussy D’ Ambois” and “The Revenge of Bussy D’ Ambois” were notable for their incorporation of contemporary history and romantic imagination. His comedies like All Fools and “Eastward Hoe” showcased his comic prowess.
Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, often associated together, succeeded Shakespeare with plays like “The Maid’s Tragedy” and “A King and No King.” Their works continued the tradition of Shakespearean drama.
Other playwrights like Marston, Dekker, and Middleton also contributed to the post-Shakespearean theater.
John Marston pioneered sensational, violent tragedies like Antonio and Mellida in the Senecan style. Thomas Dekker was known for simple yet insightful comedies like The Shoemaker’s Holiday.
John Webster is considered one of the greatest post-Shakespearean dramatists, known for his revenge tragedies The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi of the Dutchesse of Malfy.” Thomas Dekker brought simplicity and insight into characters with plays like “The Shomaker’s Holiday” and “The Honest Whore.”
Cyril Tourneur’s horror tragedies, “The Atheist’s Tragedie” and “The Revenger’s Tragedie,” marked the end of a significant era in drama. The theater was eventually closed by the Puritans in 1642. Playwrights like Philip Massinger, John Ford, and James Shirley continued the tradition before the closure.
Thomas Middleton excelled in diverse genres – his notable plays included A Fair Quarrel, The Changeling, and A Chaste Maid in Cheapside. Cyril Tourneur wrote horror revenge tragedies like The Atheist’s Tragedy.
Among the last generation, Philip Massinger blended comedy and tragedy effectively through plays like A New Way to Pay Old Debts. John Ford’s notable works included “Tis Pity She’s a Whore” and “The Broken Heart.” James Shirley, the last significant figure, continued the tradition with acclaimed works “The Traytor” and comedies such as “Love Tricks” until the theaters closed under Puritan authority in 1642.
The vibrant phase of the English stage concluded with the Puritans’ closure of the theater in 1642. The theater’s doors reopened after the restoration of monarchy in 1660, marking a new chapter in English drama.
The English Revenge Tragedy.
[ Seneca and the nature of his play-immense influence of Senecan plays (a) Early English tragedies (b) Later Elizabethan tragedies-appeal of revenge tragedies]
Seneca, a Roman dramatist during Nero’s reign, had an immense influence on Elizabethan playwrights through his bloody revenge tragedies. His ten surviving plays focused on revenge, murder, supernatural elements, and sensationalism rather than the fate-driven human suffering found in Greek tragedies. While more melodramatic and theatrical than the nuanced Greek tragedies, Senecan plays shaped European drama and laid the foundation for the immensely popular Elizabethan revenge tragedy genre by providing inspiration, plots, and dramatic devices.
What distinguished Senecan tragedy from the classical Greek tradition was the shift in its underlying motive force. Unlike the Greek tragedies that often featured human suffering stemming from a commanding, merciless force known as Fate, Senecan tragedies positioned human actions as the catalyst for tragedy. The core elements of a Senecan tragedy comprised revenge, bloodshed, and a sense of supernatural terror. While these plays may have appeared melodramatic and theatrically intense when compared to the refined poise of classical Greek tragedies, they lacked the cathartic purging effect that the latter offered.
Nevertheless, the impact of Senecan drama on the dramatic literature of various European nations was undeniable. This influence began to manifest in the 16th century in France, and it formally entered the realm of English drama with Gorboduc. Gorboduc, written by Sackville and Norton in 1562, was the first English tragedy and showed Seneca’s influence by closely following his style.
The seeds of Seneca’s influence can be traced to “Gorboduc,” where the play’s theme is profoundly entrenched in concepts of revenge, bloodshed, and the supernatural, all of which reflect the essence of Seneca’s style. In the pursuit of mirroring Senecan aesthetics, authors exploited theatrical devices and aimed to preserve the seriousness and grandiloquence that characterized Seneca’s work. This trend of drawing inspiration from Seneca continued with other early English revenge plays like Thomas Hughes’s The Misfortunes of Arthur, Robert Wilmot’s The Tragedy of Tancred and Gismund, and George Gascoigne’s Jocasta. They clearly demonstrated their debt to Seneca in both subject matter and dramatic techniques. The dominant Senecan style was instrumental in establishing the English revenge tragedy tradition.
However, it was Thomas Kyd’s “The Spanish Tragedy” that solidified Seneca’s triumphant reign on the English stage, even before the emergence of Shakespeare’s masterpieces. This play achieved remarkable popularity and adhered closely to the Senecan tradition of blood-soaked vengeance. The ghostly and vengeful aspects in “The Spanish Tragedy” mirror the supernatural horror found in Seneca’s works. The play encapsulates the essence of Seneca’s influence on the English dramatic scene.
The contagion of the Senecan revenge theme spread further to other playwrights of the time. Christopher Marlowe’s “The Jew of Malta” and Robert Greene’s “The Comicall Historie of Alphonsus, King of Aragon” demonstrated the Senecan influence. Even the genius of Shakespeare was not immune to this impact. “Hamlet,” one of Shakespeare’s most renowned works, distinctly carries the aura of a revenge play. Similarly, themes of blood, revenge, and supernatural horrors resonate in “Julius Caesar” and “Macbeth,” two more Shakespearean tragedies.
The Senecan revenge motif echoed through the works of Shakespeare’s contemporaries and immediate successors. This motif became especially prominent in the works of Chapman, Marston, Webster, Tourneur, Kyd, and, of course, Shakespeare. Chapman’s “The Revenge of Bussy D’Ambois,” “The Conspiracie and Tragedie of Charles, Duke of Byron,” and “The Tragedie of Chabot, Admirall of France” showcased theatrical plots brimming with suspense and horror. While Chapman’s treatment lacked the subtlety of Shakespeare, it delivered the revenge theme with robustness and tragic intensity.
Marston’s “Antonio and Mellida” and “Antonio’s Revenge” brought forth better-executed revenge plays with dramatic and extravagant elements. Henry Chettle’s “The Tragedy of Hoffman or A Revenge for a Father” highlighted the tragic downfall resulting from a fatal flaw, a theme deeply rooted in Senecan notions.
Fletcher and Massinger’s “The Knight of Malta” and Fletcher’s “The Maides Tragedy” exemplified the revenge play’s popularity. This trend continued with other plays like “Cupid’s Revenge” and “The Bloody Brother,” attributed to Massinger, Fletcher, Jonson, and Field, collectively showcasing the wide influence of Seneca’s revenge theme.
However, John Webster and Cyril Tourneur took the Senecan revenge tradition to even greater heights. Webster’s two major tragedies The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi were founded on horror and revenge, with the latter being an archetypal revenge play. Tourneur’s The Revenger’s Tragedy and The Atheist’s Tragedy were two other fine examples of the melodramatic yet gripping Elizabethan revenge drama. The gloomy atmosphere, suspense, bloody vengeance, and insight into the dark recesses of the human psyche gave these plays great dramatic power and resonance for Elizabethan and Jacobean audiences.
In conclusion, while crude and theatrical compared to Greek tragedies, Seneca’s sensational revenge dramas exerted an enduring influence on Elizabethan and Jacobean drama. The Senecan revenge motif possessed a natural allure for the common audience. His legacy lived on through the immense popularity of bloody revenge tragedies filled with ghosts, madness, and gore, which spoke vividly to audiences of the time. The revenge tradition dominated the English stage and reached its apogee in Shakespeare and other major dramatists despite its exaggerated melodrama.
Key Points of growth of English Drama:
(9) ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
(a) GROWTH OF DRAMA
Mystery and Miracle Plays
Moralities and Interludes
Pre-Shakespeareans
Shakespeare
Post Shakespeareans
Decline of Tragedy
The zenith of English drama was undoubtedly reached during the reign of Shakespeare, whose contributions spanned across all realms of the dramatic arts—comedy, tragi-comedy, and tragedy. His unmatched mastery in plot construction, character portrayal, dialogue, and universal appeal solidified his place as the epitome of British theater.
However, after reaching its peak with Shakespeare, British drama began to decline in the early 17th century. This decline is seen in tragedies, comedies, and tragicomedies. The plays lacked Shakespeare’s harmonious plots, vivid characterization, natural dialogue, and universal appeal.
The aftermath of Shakespeare witnessed a faltering of dramatic potency and a perceptible touch of decay. These signs of decadence pervade every genre of dramatic literature—tragedy, comedy, and tragi-comedy.
The decay is most noticeable in post-Shakespearean tragedies. Shakespeare’s innovative creativity gave rise to immortal poetic tragedies by revisiting themes of revenge, blood, ambition, and lust. However, those who followed in his footsteps failed to attain the same command over the tragic muse. Even the eminent Ben Jonson, despite his brilliance, couldn’t match Shakespeare’s tragic art. His plays “Sejanus, his Fall” and “Catiline, his Conspiracy” appear overly laborious and mechanistic, falling short of true greatness. Heywood’s “A Woman Killed With Kindness” substitutes sentimentality for high tragic themes, diluting the quality of tragic art.
Beaumont and Fletcher’s “The Maides Tragedy” and “A King and No King” transport audiences to distant and unfamiliar realms, lacking balance and displaying excessive emotions. Webster, with “The Tragedy of the Duchesse of Malfy” and “The White Devil,” captures echoes of Shakespearean themes but with plot development characterized by strange coincidences and forced effects. While his characters resemble Shakespeare’s, they lack the same majesty and universality. Chapman and Tourneur lacked dramatic skill and realism. Chapman’s tragedies, including “Bussy D’Ambois” and “The Revenge of Bussy D’Ambois,” are original but fail to deliver good stage plays. Chapman’s poetry outshines his drama, leaving his tragedies obscured and monotonous.
Tourneur’s “The Atheist’s Tragedie” and “The Revenger’s Tragedie” present an unnatural and pitiless world that shuns normalcy. Middleton’s “The Changeling” aims to emulate Shakespearean tragedy but falls short of capturing its unique universality. Massinger’s “The Roman Actor” focuses on crime and violence, sometimes deviating from reality with excessive sentimentality.
Ford’s plays like “Love’s Sacrifice,” “The Broken Heart,” and “Tis Pity She’s a Whore” evoke horror and pain, laden with scenes of cruelty but poorly contrived. Shirley’s “The Traitor” and “The Cardinal” demonstrate tragic power, yet their melodrama, rhetorical bombast, and poetic sensibility miss the true essence of great tragedy. Ford and Shirley relied too much on sensationalism, violence, and melodrama. Their tragedies did not match the depth of Shakespeare’s.
Comedy
In the comedy arena, the post-Shakespearean landscape sees the decline of the comic spirit that once resonated with Shakespearean joy, warmth, and brightness. Instead, decadent comedy embraces coarseness, gross humor, vulgarity, eccentricity, and sentimentality in the name of realism. Ben Jonson’s mighty comedic works, like “Every Man in His Humour” and “The Alchemist,” demonstrate mastery, but their narrow conception of life lacks the broadness and naturalness of Shakespeare’s comedies.
Marston’s satirical talent, seen in plays like “The Dutch Courtezan,” is marred by coarseness and unrestrained speeches. “Eastward Hoe,” attributed to Jonson, Chapman, and Marston, excels as a comedy of manners but lacks the depth and brilliance of Shakespearean high comedies. Dekker’s comedies exhibit gentleness and good temper but miss the unity and comprehensiveness of Shakespeare’s works. Fletcher’s plays lean towards sentimentality, Middleton’s and Massinger’s works delve into satire, while missing the true spirit of comedy.
Tragi-comedy
Tragi-comedy gained popularity in the post-Shakespearean era due to a decline in seriousness. Although it originated with Shakespeare, post-Shakespearean tragi-comedies often lack the depth, characterisation, and craftsmanship of his great works. Beaumont and Fletcher, who catered to the popularity of tragi-comedies, sometimes delved into absurdity with plays like “Philaster.” These plays borrowed from Shakespeare without achieving his versatility, often indulging in fanciful and improbable scenarios.
The decline of drama
The decay of English drama after Shakespeare is evident in several ways.
Firstly, the broad range of themes that Shakespeare explored, involving all of humanity, gets limited to certain subjects that are temporary, local, and incomplete in significance.
Second, the balance between romance and realism is lost. The delicate balance that Shakespeare struck between romantic elements and realistic portrayal is replaced by an inadequate focus on either dry societal realities or exaggerated romantic aspects.
Thirdly, the carefully woven plots that Shakespeare masterfully connected together are now substituted with plots that lack coherence and often consist of scenes designed for theatrical impact rather than meaningful connection.
Fourthly, the remarkable characters that Shakespeare brought to life, including heroes, heroines, villains, and clowns, are replaced by less impressive characters like verbose young individuals, pitiable women, menacing wrongdoers, and uninspiring comic figures.
Finally, dramatic poetry declines sharply in quality. The vigorous Shakespearean blank verse loses its resonance, becoming flaccid. The rhetorical richness of Shakespeare’s language, with its inventive metaphors and wordplay, is rarely matched by his successors. The poetic language that used to be as sharp as a musical and resonant instrument loses its edge.
Overall, English drama underwent a noticeable decay in its language, characterization, plotting, themes, and artistic balance after reaching its zenith with Shakespeare.