Old English literature, also called Anglo-Saxon literature, is literature written in Old English c. 650–c. 1100.

The earliest English poetry comprised songs and poems. They are primarily oral literature. The minstrels sang to the harp and practiced them. The people continued the oral tradition from generation to generation.

Some of the Anglo-Saxon poetical works existed before introducing Christianity. Therefore, the poems are pagan in their theme. When the Christian clerks started to record the works, it is assumed that most of their originality got lost.

Over time, it must have lost some of its originality. The reasons are: first Since they passed orally, it is natural to change. Addition, alternations, or omissions in the course of oral transitions. Second, the portion of oral literature that is now available today was recorded later in the seventh century under the authorship of Christian clerks. For the first time, the Christian clerks have undertaken the effort to pen them down for us to preserve and read. The body of literature was primarily pagan in its themes. Therefore, they might have changed them to suit their Christian ideals and themes.

Heroic Poetry

The subject matters of non-Christian poems are war and revenge. Heroic poems vividly portray war scenes and heroic feats. They are heathen in spirit. They reflect the fighting spirit of the Anglo-Saxons. However, they are found to exhibit lofty ideals such as sacrifice, chivalry, sacrifice, dutifulness, etc. The probable reasons could be the Christian clerks might have altered them to match the Christian ideals. 

The Battle of Finnsburh is a fragmentary revenge poem. The battle between the Danes and the Frisians. King Finn and the Frisians conspired against the Danish king Hnaef and his followers. During their visits as guests, Finn and the Frisians killed their guests. In response to the treachery, the Danes retaliate by killing Finn and the Frisians people and their palace. 

The Battle of Finnsburh reflects the actions and lives of primitive kings and their people. 

Waldhere is also a fragmentary heroic poem that is originally a German work of the seventh century. The Battle of Brunahburh and The Battle of Maldon are both heroic poems. However, they were composed after the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon people to Christianity.

Beowulf is the oldest surviving epic of the Anglo-Saxons. It is about a Teutonic knight, Beowulf who shows feats of valor. He saves his people from the wicked force, monsters, and a dragon and sacrifices his life for his people. Beowulf fights against Grendel. Grendel’s mother retaliates and Beowulf saves them. At last, he fights against a dragon and dies.

Beowulf vividly portrays its settings and picturesque imagery. For instance, the sea, the battle, and the den of Grendel. It contains a gloomy tone. 

Elegiac Poetry or Subjective Poetry

Apart from heroic poetry, some Anglo-Saxon poems deal with personal experiences. They are reflective and pensive in tone. They are the earliest specimens of English lyrics.

Widsith or Far Wanderer is a one-hundred-fifty-line early English poem. It is about a minstrel, Widsith, who visits different lands and the poem recounts his experiences with the people and their manners. It is not a lyrical poem, rather it is narrative and descriptive. 

The poem bears a close resemblance to lyrical poetry, but it is not lyrical in a critical sense because of its narrative style.

The Complaint of the Doer is also another fifty-two lines poem that is about a minstrel. The minstrel complains about his dismissal to the lord against his rival. His lord once loved him but, soon, he became out of his sight. His rival takes his place, who is a competent minstrel. 

The merit of the poem is it introduces a refrain in each stanza, “That passed away, so may this.”

It is lyrical in form and we can consider it the first English lyric. The tone of the poem is melancholic. 

Old English poetry is the poetry written in Old English, the language spoken and written in England from the 5th to the 11th centuries. Old English poetry is characterized by its use of alliteration, a technique in which words that begin with the same sound are used in close proximity to each other, and its focus on heroic tales and religious themes. Old English poetry was largely oral in nature and was passed down through the generations by bards and scops, who were responsible for memorizing and reciting the poems.

Some of the most well-known Old English poems include the epic poem “Beowulf,” which tells the story of a heroic warrior who battles monsters and dragons to protect his people. “The Seafarer” is a poem that reflects on the theme of exile and the human condition. “The Wanderer” is a poem that reflects on the theme of loss and the fleeting nature of life. “The Dream of the Rood” is a poem that tells the story of the cross on which Jesus was crucified and its role in salvation. “Caedmon’s Hymn” is a poem that celebrates the creation of the world and the role of God in it. Old English poetry often incorporates elements of folklore and mythology, as well as Christian themes and teachings.

The Characteristics of Old English literature:

1. Alliteration: Old English poetry is characterized by its use of alliteration, a technique in which words that begin with the same sound are used in close proximity to each other.
2. Epic themes: Many Old English poems, such as “Beowulf,” are epic in nature and focus on heroic tales and feats of bravery.
3. Oral tradition: Old English literature was largely oral in nature and was passed down through the generations by bards and scops, who were responsible for memorizing and reciting the poems.
4. Christian themes: The Christianization of England in the 7th century had a significant impact on Old English literature, with many works incorporating Christian themes and teachings.
5. Folklore and mythology: Old English literature often incorporates elements of folklore and mythology, such as tales of dragons and monsters.
6. Use of kennings: Old English poetry frequently makes use of kennings, which are compound words or phrases that function as a single noun and use figurative language to describe an object or concept.
7. Focus on the human condition: Many Old English poems, such as “The Seafarer” and “The Wanderer,” reflect on the human condition and the themes of loss and exile.

• Use of Old English language: Old English literature is written in Old English, a language that is distinct from modern English and has its own grammar, vocabulary, and syntax.
• Use of caesura: Old English poetry often makes use of caesura, a pause or break within a line of poetry that is indicated by a symbol such as a vertical line or double vertical line.
• Use of rhyme: While not all Old English poetry uses rhyme, some poems, such as “Beowulf,” do make use of rhyme as a literary device.
• Use of parallelism: Old English poetry often employs the use of parallelism, in which two or more phrases or clauses are balanced against each other in terms of structure, meaning, or both.
• Use of epithets: Old English poetry often includes the use of epithets, which are descriptive phrases or terms that are used to describe a person or thing.
• Use of metrical patterns: Old English poetry is characterized by its use of metrical patterns, or specific arrangements of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry.

Here are examples of each of the characteristics:

1. Alliteration: “The sea-weary sailor” (from “The Seafarer”)
2. Epic themes: “Beowulf” is an epic poem that tells the story of a heroic warrior who battles monsters and dragons to protect his people.
3. Oral tradition: Many Old English poems, such as “Beowulf,” were passed down through the generations by bards and scops who recited them orally.
4. Christian themes: “The Dream of the Rood” is a poem that tells the story of the cross on which Jesus was crucified and its role in salvation.
5. Folklore and mythology: “Beowulf” incorporates elements of folklore and mythology, such as the story of the dragon that terrorizes the kingdom.
6. Use of kennings: “The Seafarer” makes use of kennings such as “whale-road” to describe the ocean and “whale-path” to describe a sailor’s journey.
7. Focus on the human condition: “The Wanderer” reflects on the theme of loss and the fleeting nature of life.
8. Use of Old English language: Old English literature is written in the Old English language, which is distinct from modern English and has its own grammar, vocabulary, and syntax. An example of Old English is the opening lines of “Beowulf”: “Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum,/þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon,/hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.”
9. Use of caesura: The Old English poem “Beowulf” makes use of caesura, with a vertical line indicating a pause within a line of poetry.
10. Use of rhyme: “Beowulf” makes use of rhyme, with lines such as “þæt wæs god cyning!” and “þæt he æt Grendles hæle/þrowade, þæt he on þæm wælstowe/weold wine Scyldinga.”
11. Use of parallelism: “The Wanderer” employs parallelism, with lines such as “Frost and fire, these are foes to men,/sorrows two, and so to many.”
12. Use of epithets: “Beowulf” includes the use of epithets such as “the Geatish warrior” to describe the hero.
13. Use of metrical patterns: Old English poetry is characterized by its use of metrical patterns, such as the alliterative verse found in “Beowulf,” in which stressed syllables are organized in a specific pattern.

Limitation of Anglo-Saxon Literature

Old English literature, like all literature, has its own set of strengths and limitations. One limitation of Old English literature is that it is written in a language that is distinct from modern English and can be difficult for modern readers to understand without some knowledge of Old English grammar and vocabulary. This can make Old English literature less accessible to readers who are not familiar with the language.

Another limitation of Old English literature is that it primarily reflects the experiences and perspectives of a specific time and place, namely England during the 5th to 11th centuries. This means that Old English literature may not be representative of the experiences and perspectives of other cultures or time periods.

Old English literature is also limited in terms of the diversity of voices and perspectives represented within it. The majority of Old English literature was written by men and reflects the experiences and perspectives of men. This means that the literature may not fully represent the experiences and perspectives of women or other marginalized groups.

Finally, Old English literature is limited in terms of the range of genres and themes represented within it. While there are a number of works of Old English poetry and prose that deal with epic, heroic, and religious themes, there are relatively few works that deal with more personal, domestic, or everyday themes. This can make Old English literature seem somewhat removed from the experiences and concerns of modern readers.